The Ancient Society of Sri Lanka

 Introduction

The majority who live in any society at any given time is the general public. Rulers, government officers, religious leaders and other chieftains are a minority among the people. History is the past that reflects the activities of all of them. Though that is the truth, many of the historical source descriptions have presented information paying more attention to the minority that we mentioned secondly. Therefore, the knowledge of information about the ancient general public is limited. If we need to understand the history of this country better, it is necessary to learn the information of lives of the general public who lived during the ancient time. In this lesson you will have an opportunity to learn all this with more information.

The Nature of Ruling

The historical sources say that kings ruled our country in the ancient times. The inscriptions mention very important information about the procedure of the statesmanship followed in ruling the country.

 There are three institutions which handle the ruling of any country. They are called the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. The government means these three institutions. The legislature is the institution which makes laws in a country. As it is done by the parliament of our country today, in the ancient time it was done by the king’s court. The executive is the institution which implements laws. The government officers are engaged in that process. The judiciary provides the justice to the countrymen by preventing the damage caused to the society due to breach of law.

In the ancient time there were an executive as well as a judiciary in our country. The executive acted as the legislature too. There was not an independent body as a separate legislature, because then there was monarchism in this country. The inscriptions written in 9th century A.D. had used the word ‘Ekthensamiya’ to name the executive and the legislature. In an inscription in the place called Buddhannehela there is a note which could be put into words such as “Apa methuwak dena awud wathhimiyan wahansege wadala ekthensamiyen”. The word ‘Ekthensamiya’ is formed from the words ‘Eka asthana’ and ‘Samya’. The word ‘Eka asthana’ means ‘king’s court’ and ‘Samya’ means ‘agreement’. Hence, the word ‘Ekthen Samiya’ gives us the meaning ‘agreement of the king’s court’. The inscription Buddhannehela was established to make a statement of an offering of a land. The phrase of the inscription mentions that the offering was made with the agreement of the king’s court and due to the decree of the king. The phrase “Wath himiyan wadala” means the “king’s decree”. The word ‘Wathhimi’ is a similar word to king.

 According to the inscriptions that belong to the 9th century A.D., the officers, who came to grant the land of the government to the Buddhist temples, had represented a place called ‘sabhava – the council’. As mentioned in one of the inscriptions found in Anuradhapura district the officers named Udaya in Meningamuva and Sena in Nikawella had come representing the council (Sabhawa) to offer a plot of land called Kerelegama to the nunnery called Mahindarama. It goes like this in the inscription, “Sabhayen a meningamu udahi isa nikaweli senu isa”.

. Several symbols in an inscription written in the 9th century A.D. Here, the mark ‘ Vatapatha (fan)’ indicates the sceptre which symbolizes royalty; the mark ‘Wela (creeper)’ indicates the swan. The swan symbolizes the purity of the given allowance. The crescent mark at the top symbolizes that this allowance persists until the sun and the moon exist. The marks of the dog and crow symbolize that those who disturbed this allowance would be born as those animals in their next birth.

 Here the word ‘Sabhawa’ means the judiciary existed then. It is a legal act to bequeath land of the government to another. Therefore, the participation of the officers, representing the judiciary, in such occasions was essential. On such occasions demarcating the borders of the given land and documenting the conditions that should be followed in enjoying the land must have been the duty of the officers.

In the literary sources the word ‘Mahale’ has been used in several places instead of the word ‘Sabhawa’. That was how the old Sinhala word ‘Maha Lekhaka – great writer’ was written. It is similar to the meaning ‘Maha Lekam – general secretary’. The duty of the secretaries of the government was to document all governmental affairs and take necessary steps to preserve them. An inscription found in Medirigiriya mentions about such a general secretary. The inscription says that a general secretary (Mahale Kasba) called Kashyapa had come to offer a land to a Padhanaghara called Eth Wehera in Medirigiriya and to do the legal affairs of it under the decree of King Sena II.

When Anuradhapura was the capital of the country, it was the ruling centre too. The king ruled the country from the capital. It is clear that as there were no transportation and communication facilities like today, therefore handling the administrative affairs of the remote areas from Anuradhapura was difficult. There are facts that can be seen in literary sources about separate administrative units related to the government for provincial administration because of the above reason. An example which can be given for that is the golden plate - ‘Vallipuram’ written in King Vasabha’s ruling period. It has been mentioned in the document that a minister called Rishigiri, who ruled Nagadeepa during king Vasabha’s ruling period, built a temple called Piyangukatissa there. This clearly shows the manner in which the officers of the central government had been appointed to rule the outer areas.

Apart from these, there were independent councils, which were at lower levels to administer each area. In the inscriptions, those independent councils, which existed in 9th century A.D., have been introduced as ‘Dasagam Ettan’. The heads of them had participated in the administrative affairs at a minor scale, representing ten villages. An inscription situated in an old temple called Kaludiya Pokuna in Matale district says that if there was a problem regarding offering alms to the temple, Dasagam Ettan should gather and solve the problem.

 In administration, the rulers of the country acted for the welfare of the people. They not only offered grants to the temples, but also acted for the betterment of the countrymen. Especially, the rulers frequently paid their attention to uplift the health facilities of the general public, which was essential to them. The word ‘Vejjasala’ has been used in ancient literary sources. That word means ‘hospitals’. The inscriptions made in the 2nd century B.C. mention about doctors who were called ‘Veja’

King Buddhadasa (340 – 368 A.D) was a ruler who made a great effort to build hospitals. King Mahinda V (982 – 1029 A.D) acted to provide everything required to the hospitals in various provinces in the country then. During the reign of king Kashyapa IV (898 -914 A.D) a dangerous fever spread in and around Anuradhapura. Historical sources say that the king who realized that those patients could not be treated under the facilities available in the hospital existed then, built a special hospital for that. For that the word ‘Upasaggaroganasa’ was used in the sources.

King Upatissa I (365-406 A.D.) built maternal hospitals for the needs of the pregnant women. Those hospitals were named as ‘Paswantinama Sala’. That word means ‘the halls built for the  delivery’. In the inscriptions those buildings were named as ‘Thimbirige’. From an ancient time, there was the tradition of building maternal hospitals in this country. There was a type of halls called ‘Sottisala’ during king Pandukabhaya’s reign. The annotative texts describe that the name ‘Sottisala’ was used by Brahmins for the places where religious activities were performed and to name the maternity hospitals.

The intelligent kings, who ruled our country maintained mutual relations with their neighbouring countries as well as with distant countries. The countries with which relations were maintained, changed from time to time. Relations were maintained with Asian countries including India and Araby since a very long time and with some European countries since several centuries from the recent past. Inscriptions in the South India mention that King Gajabahu I (114-136 A.D.), who was a reputed ruler from the ‘Lambhakarna’ lineage had arrived in ‘Chera’ state in South India to participate in a ceremony where a ‘Pattini’ Devala was declared open.

 Perhaps the purpose of this journey might have been to strengthen the mutuality of statesmanship between two countries.

Mahawamsa mentions that king Bhatikabhaya (23B.C-7A.D.) had sent ambassadors to ‘Romanuka Desha’. Here ‘Romanuka Desha’ means Rome. The purpose of this mission was to fetch glass pebbles for a Pooja performed at Ruwanweli Seya.

In the 8th and 9th centuries A. D. the rulers of this country built a close relation with China. During that time ambassadors from this country went to China. In the ruling period of king Aggabodhi VI these relations were very strong. During that time twenty foreign missions went to China. The success in trading was the basic background of the relations built with China and it made a cultural influence too.

 Sri Lanka had marital relations with neighbouring countries. This reflects another way that Sri Lanka maintained its foreign relations. Specially, there is information in the Wamsakatha about marital relations that our rulers had with powerful Indian states such as Kalinga, and Pandya. King Vijayabahu I (1070-1110) married a Kalinga princess named Thilokasundari and the king’s sister princess Miththa married a Pandyan prince. It seems that the fundamental purpose of these marital relations was to maintain the political power with stability through relationships.

Though there were differences in languages and religions, acting with trust with the neighbouring countries were one of the prominent features of the foreign policy of our rulers. The best example for this is that King Vijayabahu I appointed the Veleikkara army for defense of the Polonnaruwa Temple Tooth. Veleikkara force was a mercenary army which came from Southern India and served in Sri Lanka for payments.

After the 10th century A.D., our kings had a mutual relationship with Arabian countries. The purpose of that must have been giving Sri Lankan contribution stably for the trade affairs done by the Arabian traders in the Indian Ocean. As it is mentioned by the Arabian historian Al – Balasuri, who lived in the 9th century A.D., the king of ‘Ruby Island’ (Sri Lanka was called by this name) had exchanged gifts with the Islamic king.

If it is summarized, the main purposes of the ruling in this country were creating a peaceful co-existence among the countrymen, providing their welfare and protecting the territorial integrity for preserving the motherland and future longevity of the countrymen. In parallel to them, it seems that they have acted with a farsighted vision to work in a mutual understanding with the neighbouring countries.

Economy

The majority of the people lived in villages. In comparison to the present condition, those villagers’ lives were shaped up in a very simple way. Most of their occupation was agriculture. Some were engaged in Chena cultivation whereas the others were engaged in paddy cultivation. They reared animals for living. Apart from these, some, who were engaged in different occupations, lived in villages completely separated for themselves.

 Farming/ Agriculture

The main livelihood of the villagers who lived in the ancient Sri Lanka was farming. Animal husbandry or rearing animals was also done in line with the agricultural activities. Agriculture was done in two ways; one was muddy agriculture alias paddy cultivation; second was Chena cultivation. The historical and archaeological sources substantiate that the Chena cultivation was the oldest out of these two. The term ‘Hena’ (Chena) used in ancient time has been mentioned as ‘Sehen’ in Buthsarana, the literary text, ‘Sen’ in Ummagga Jathaka, and ‘Pitibim’ in inscriptions.

Chena Cultivation

‘Hena’ or Chena cultivation is an inland cultivation. A suitable land for ‘Hena or Chena’ is prepared for growing grains and vegetables after choosing a plot of land from a jungle area, clearing it by cutting small, trees, undergrowth and thorny bushes in it and burning them after they dried. In this process the farmers would not cut big trees. Before setting fire to the cleared jungle area, the owner of the Chena shouts out in order to chase away animals from that area.

 A scene of a newly arranged Chena (Nawadeli Hena)

A new chena, which has been cleared by setting fire to it, is called as ‘Nawa Deli Hena’. Those Chenas are fertile. The term ‘Nawadeli Sena’ has been mentioned in ‘Saddharma Rathnawaliya’ too. In some parts of Sri Lanka, a different meaning is given to the term ‘Nawa Deli Hena’. It says the term ‘Nawa Deli Hena’ is used for Chenas where the nine plants namely, finger millet (Kurakkan), Kollu, Undu, green gram(Mun), Corn (Iringu), millet (Thanahal), dill seeds (Asamodagam) and Amu have sprouted in lush. The villagers in Anuradhapura use the term ‘Kanaththa’ to name the Chenas which are prepared to start cultivation again after giving it up for some time. The normal method practised in Chena cultivation was abandoning a certain Chena after cultivating it for once or twice. As it is abandoned for some time, it grows wild again. Therefore, old Chena cultivation did not do any harm to the environment.

The seeds such as Undu, Ma, Green gram (Mun), finger millet (Kurakkan), Corn (Iringu), Sesame  thala, amu, mustard (Aba), dill (Duru), and millet (Thanahal) as well as vegetables such as Karabatu, Thiththabatu, Brinjal (Vambatu), ash pumkin (Alu puhul) and pumpkin (Wattakka) were cultivated in Chenas. Al vee (a type of paddy), yams, Uk Gas (sugar cane) and Kapu (cotton) were cultivated in Chenas separated for them. During that time the cultivation of sugar cane and cotton was rich enough to produce jaggery and clothes needed for the country. The Wamsakatha mention that there were labourers engaged in sugar cane industry. Our ancestors were able to produce jaggery needed within the country itself for a long time. The scholars point out that until the 16th century A.D., sugar was not imported to this country.

 As a Chena is cultivated in a place which is away from farmers’ houses, they stay temporarily in a hut built in the Chena until it is harvested. The fence, which is normally made out of sticks around the Chena to protect its crops from the wild animals, is called ‘Dandu Weta’. The small hut built at the top of a tall tree in the Chena is called ‘Pela’. It was in this ‘Pela’ that the farmers stayed sleeplessly at night to protect the crops in their Chenas from wild animals.

A Chena is a beautiful scene. The hut, which was built for the farmer to stay at night to protect the Chena from wild animals, the fence made with sticks around the Chena are things that can mostly be seen.

During the times of some kings, taxes were charged for cultivating Chenas. Two types of such taxes, ‘Kethi Ada’, ‘Ketu Kanaba Aya’ have been mentioned in inscriptions. The inscriptions say that King Nissankamalla (1187-1196 A.D), who ruled in Polonnaruwa, abolished those two types of taxes.

 Since there was not much population in ancient time, Chena cultivation was enough to meet the needs of their lives. Muddy or paddy cultivation was started in order to produce more food required for the increasing population.

Paddy Cultivation

In inscriptions the places where paddy was cultivated have been introduced as ‘Kumbura’ and ‘Ketha’. Sometimes the word ‘Kumbura’ may have been used to introduce the small space which was used for paddy cultivation. The term ‘Ketha’ has derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Kshesthra’. It meant 'considerably big fields'.

Mostly the paddy cultivation was done by using irrigation. During monsoon seasons, rain water was reserved in tanks. Then the water was carried to paddy fields through canals. Twice a year paddy was cultivated. The seasons in which paddy was cultivated were introduced in the name of ‘Kanna’. The two ‘Kannas’ (seasons) in which paddy was cultivated were called ‘Maha Kannaya’ and ‘Yala Kannaya’. Apart from these, another one introduced as ‘Meda Kannaya’ is found in inscriptions. It came between ‘Yala Kanna’ and ‘Maha Kanna’ and also depended on the abundance of water.

The main need of the dry zone to maintain paddy cultivation successfully was to supply sufficient water. Gathering rain water and taking water through canal to paddy fields by putting a barrier across the natural rivers were the two strategies followed. The tradition of making tanks developed in this country as a strategy to face the need of preserving water. The statement uttered by king Parakramabahu the Great (1153 – 1186 A.D.) as “Not a single drop of water that falls from the sky should be sent to the sea without properly using it” shows how the ruler saw the importance of preserving water.

Unlike at present, farmers in the past were conscious of doing various customs in the paddy cultivation. It provided them with much assistance to be engaged in their livelihoods by being close to the nature.

Animal Husbandry

Apart from agricultural activities, there was animal husbandry too. Rearing cattle was the major activity in it. The inscriptions mention Gopalagams, which were reserved for those who were engaged in cattle rearing. What was taken from cattle was very helpful for food. Mee kiri (milk or curd), Githel (ghee), Wendaru (butter), were prominent among them. There is a word “Kirigeri” in an inscription, made by king Kashyapa IV, in the Colombo Museum. What it means is the cattle reared for getting milk. A nice carving of a woman who gets milk from a cow has been engraved on the rock ‘Mahameru’, which was settled in the ancient Stupa of the temple named Nagapabba in Sigiriya.

 Apart from cattle, chicken and goats were reared in houses. There is an inscription, written in the 9th century A.D., at the hospital in Padhanagara at Ethvehera temple in Medirigiriya, Polonnaruwa. It is mentioned in the inscription that for needs of the patients only the flesh of naturally died chicken and goats should be used.

Industries

Apart from this, there were artisans who were engaged in their industries using copper (Thabakara) and tin metal at that time. The word ‘Thuladhara’ had been used to introduce goldsmiths in ancient documents. In some of the books they have been described by the name of ‘Swarnakara’. An inscription found in the place called Mandagala in Hambantota district, there is a reference about a goldsmith named Thuladara Sumana. Things such as bead and badges, made of types of half gems and gems, found in old cities such as Anuradhapura and Magama from the archaeological excavations reflect the nature of the gem industry existed in the society of this county. The artisans who were engaged in such affairs were called ‘Manikara,.

 Another industry, which existed in the ancient society of this country, was the art of carving on tusks. An inscription situated close to Vegiriya Devalaya mentions a craftsman of tusks named ‘Datika Sumana’. The term ‘Datika’ comes from the word ‘Danthika’.

Earthenware was the most useful ones for the ordinary people, who lived in those days, for their day-to-day activities. A large number of remnants of such earthenware have been discovered in archaeological excavations. Making earthenware   was a well organized industry at that time. Even the inscriptions written more than 2250 years ago mention about those who were engaged in pottery. Then they were named ‘Kumbhakara’ (Kubakara).In an inscription in a place named ‘Veherakema’ in Hambanthota district a word named ‘Thathvaya’ appears. This term is a combination of the two words ‘Thanthu Vaya’. Its meaning is ‘one who spins strings’. Spinning strings is related to weaving clothes. Historical sources say that weaving clothes was an industry that existed in our country from ancient time. The reference of the spinners of strings mentioned in the Veherakema inscription is an obvious evidence that proves the cloth weaving industry existed at that time.

By mentioning information about artisans who were engaged in different types of industries such as these occupations in our history, it appears that the ancient society of our country was well organized. All these artisans made a contribution out of their knowledge and labour to run the society well.

Trading

In ancient time there were only a few number of cities. According to sources, Anuradhapura and Magama were prominent among them. To call them the word ‘Pura’ has been used. The rich lived in big cities. There were both local and foreign traders in those cities. At the southern gate in Anuradhapura, there was a bazaar called ‘Kalasumana’.

Trade was a major occupation in our country during ancient time. Trade activities were maintained locally as well as with foreign countries. An inscription in the western water park of Sigiriya mentions about a person called ‘Abala Wapara’. That is the way how ‘sour business’ was written in old Sinhala language. It is a ‘tamarind trader’ that was introduced thus. That inscription had been written 2250 years ago. Except for a small group, others worked by organizing themselves collectively. That kind of organization was addressed by the name ‘Poogaya’. In some places the word ‘Niyamasthana’ has been used for that. 

Those who were engaged in trade were called ‘Wanija’ or ‘Vapara’ in those days. The word ‘Vapara’ was the old Sinhala term of ‘Vyaparika – business’. These traders were the rich in the ancient society. They had even offered caves for Bhikkus to stay. An inscription in the place called ‘Mandagala’ in Hambanthota district mentions that a trader called ‘Sumana’ had offered such a cave. Another inscription was found in a place named ‘Weherakema’. That inscription includes a description about an offering of a cave to the Bhikkus by an organization of those who did their trading by weaving clothes.  

There were markets for selling commodities in trade cities and villages. Literary sources mention that one Suranimala, who came to Anuradhapura from Mahagrama, bought perfumes at a shop. The information in the inscription of King Udaya IV (946-954 A.D.) points out the way how ancient markets were administered in an organized way.

The best example that can be given for this is the description given in the Soraborawewa inscription about Hopitigama market. It includes the laws imposed by the king on its administration. There is a law mentioned in it which commands that taxes should be charged only from the carts which come to the market, but not from the carts which go passing the market. A law has imposed stating that betel should only be sold keeping in a hut covered from the sun. It was done in order to prevent selling dried betel to people. There were no trading affairs on poya days then. A fine was charged from those who did their business on poya days. Those did trading on poya days at the Hopitigama market, had to supply oil to light lamps at the Mahiyanganaya temple as a fine.

Old commercial cities and ports

The Tamil inscriptions, found in Sri Lanka, which belonged to the period from the 11th century to the 13th century A.D., mention that there were several South Indian trade organizations afoot in this country during the same time. Nanadesi, Valagngniyar, and Ayinurwur are some of them. A metal stamp, which belonged to the trade organization named Nanadesi, was discovered in Hambantota.

 There is enough evidence to prove that there were a considerable number of foreign traders in this country in the early period. In an inscription in a place named Bowaththegala in Southern Province, there is a term “Kajoba Maha Pugiya”. It is about a big trade organization of the Cambodians. The Cambodians were traders who came here from Afganistan.

From ancient time our country played a significant role in international trade affairs. One reason that affected for this was Sri Lanka was located in the middle of the Indian Ocean. The contribution that Sri Lanka made as an exchanging center in the East-West trading in the ancient time cannot be belittled.

One of the specific factors that contributed Anuradhapura to develop as a city was international trading. In the West Mathota harbour was located where as Gokkannathiththa, known as Trincomalee harbour today, was situated in the East. Apart from these, the actions of small harbours situated on the western and eastern coasts made a direct influence on the emerging urbanization of Anuradhapura. Bringing Sri Maha Bodhi from the small harbour named Jambakolapattana situated in the Northern coast and bringing the Tooth Relic from the small anchorage port called Lankapattana situated in the Eastern coast by prince Dantha and princess Hemamala to this country are examples for this.

Teachers

Teaching profession too was another occupation existed in ancient Sri Lanka. In ancient documents the word ‘Acharya’ has been used to introduce teachers. Not only those who taught crafts, but also those who excelled in education, were named as ‘Acharya’. These Acharyas were good at different types of crafts. The inscriptions mention information about teachers who trained taming tuskers (Hasthi Acharya), going on horseback (Ashwa Acharya) and shooting with the bow (Dunu Acharya).

Doctors

To run a society well, the citizens who belong to it must be healthy. The service of the doctors is very important for that. In the Anuradhapura period medical profession held a high recognition. The word ‘Veja’ was used to introduce doctors in inscriptions. In the 9th century A.D. some doctors had been named as ‘Maha Vedana’. Such a term was used to name the chief doctor or surgeon.

 Lawyers (Legal Advisers /Experts)

2000 years ago there lived professionals who were conversant with law. It seems that mostly they gave the required instruction to the king to achieve justice. Such people who knew about law were called by the name of ‘Vohara’. It derives from the word ‘Wyavahara’ in Sanskrit language. This name was given to the persons who were proficient in the accepted practices of justice and goodness in the contemporary society.

 Different Artisans

The persons, who were engaged in different types of industries and artistic occupations, lived in the society of this country during ancient time. The sources mention that there were dancers, painters and poets among these artists. In an inscription, found in an old temple in Medagama in Kurunegala district, inscribed 2200 years ago, there is a reference about a dancer named Tissa. Introduction of the wife of this dancer as a Parumaka is an important fact here. It gives us a clear idea that dancing had been considered as an important occupation in the society. The words ‘Chithakara’ and ‘Lapana’ were used to introduce the painters. The first name had derived from the word ‘Chithrakara’ and the second had derived from the word ‘Lepana’. In Sanskrit language the word ‘Lepana’ is used to give the meaning ‘applying’. Since applying colours create paints, the word ‘Lepana’ had been used to name the painters. In an inscription in the place named Nattukanda, there is a reference to a person called ‘Lapana Tissa.

In our country there were highly talented poets. The word ‘Kavi’ itself had been used to name them. The son of above mentioned Lapana Tissa had been introduced as a poet in the same inscription. His name was Sanjaya.

The Bhikkus stayed in the cave monasteries, offered by the Buddhist followers and devotees, from early time of the introduction of Buddhism to this country. Temples and shrines were constructed much later.

Culture

Religion

From the time when Arahath Mahinda Thero arrived here in the 3rd century B.C and preached Buddhism, it had continually been the main religion of this country. Apart from this, with the arrival of Indian traders and others from India, Hindu religion too spread in this country. Christian religion and Islamic religion were introduced to Sri Lanka at recent times when it is compared to the spread of Buddhism. It was as a result of spread of trade in the Mediterranean region after the 6th century A.D. and in Western countries centered trade after the 16th century A.D. in Eastern countries. 

Soon after the arrival of Arahath Mahinda Thero and his followers, Buddhism and the rituals related to it spread rapidly in the society of this country. As there were no suitable monasteries for the daily increasing number of Bhikkus to stay, natural caves were cleaned and offered them to Bhikkus. More than 1600 caves offered in such a way to Bhikkus can be seen in different parts of the country.

In the same period when Arahath Mahinda Thero arrived in this country the caves like these were offered to the Buddhist monks by virtuous devotees. In some of the drip ledges engraved on such caves, there are inscriptions with the names of those who offered them.

A suitable cave was found, cleaned, made a drip ledge in order to prevent water from coming inside during the rainy season and offered them to Bhikkus. In some caves the details of those who offered them have been engraved under the drip ledge on the rock. Those days Brahmi letters were used for that. Those inscriptions have been written in old Sinhala language named ‘Sinhala Prakrutha’. You, who participate in school educational trips, will have the opportunity to visit such caves, in which drip ledges and inscriptions are engraved, in places such as Mihintale, Ritigala, Vessagiriya and Sigiriya. Given below here is an inscription in a cave in Mihintale.

 Inscription- Parumaka Gutha Putha Parumaka Sumanaha Lene Agatha Anagatha Chathudisha Sagasa.

Meaning- This cave was offered to the Sanga (the Bhikkus), both who are present and not present from the four directions, by Chief Sumana, a son of chief Guptha.

 Apart from caves and temples, sources mention about certain buildings introduced in the name of ‘Pannasala’. That means houses made of clay and wattle and thatched with reeds and leaves. The Bhikkus stayed in such places, before temples and monasteries were built with bricks and granite. The word ‘Pansala’ we use today has derived from the term ‘Pannasala’.

Several Bhikkus lived in ancient Buddhist monasteries. The Bhikkus who lived under the chief monk were called “Anthewasika Bhikkusdisciples monks”. An inscription engraved in a cave in Mahaelagamuwa in Anuradhapura mentions about a person who was called ‘Athewasika Pussa’. During those days the chief monks were addressed in the name of ‘Thera’. In inscriptions the student monks who lived in association with those chief monks have been   named as ‘Sadivihariya’ or ‘Saddi Viharika’. The meaning of that term is ‘one who lives close by’.

Until the Thripitaka (three scriptures) was documented during the ruling time of king Valagamba, Dhamma had been preserved by oral tradition. There were monks who had kept a part of the Thripitaka in their memory. They were named as ‘Bhanakavaru’. The monks, who had memorized the scriptures that belong to the doctrine, were called by the name of the particular scripture. For example the monks who had memorized the Deega Nikaya were called Deega Bhanaka and those who had memorized the Sanyuktha Nikaya were called Sanyuktha Bhanaka.

Inviting the monks to stay in the temples during the rainy season (Vas Visima) and holding ceremonies for offering robes (Katina Uthsava) were venerable customs among the people who lived during those days. In an inscription in the place called Helambagala in Kurunegala district the term ‘Vasavasika’ appears. Its meaning is ‘Vassavasika’ or ‘stayed inside during the rainy season’. In an inscription in Kothalakimbiyawa in the same district the words ‘Vasavasika Sahataka’ could be seen. That is how the two terms ‘Vassavasika Sataka’ have been written in Sinhala Prakrit language. Its meaning is ‘Katina Cheewaraya - the woven robe’. It says that cousins of a monk called ‘Uththiya’ offered a ‘Katina Cheewaraya – the woven robe’. Both of these inscriptions belong to a period of 2200 years ago.

Other Religions

There is evidence that Brahmin groups lived in and around Anuradhapura city during the time when Buddhism was rooted in the society of this country. They were Hindu devotees. Mahawamsatika, which described that there was a type of buildings, mentioned in Mahawamsa, in the name of Sottisala, points out that the places where the Brahmins performed  their religious activities too were called by that name. And also, that book, which describes the word ‘Sivikasala’, points out that it meant the places where the ‘Shiva Lingas’ (phallus of god Siva) were established.

A cross engraved on a stone post in Anuradhapura. This belongs to a time after the Portuguese came to this country

Those ‘Pooja’ performed for the God Siva is well-known among the Hindu devotees. As South India is located close to Sri Lanka and there prevailed regular trade relations between the two countries, ideas of the Hindu religion were brought here. The oldest inscriptions of this country mention about the Tamil traders who came to Sri Lanka for trading. They have been introduced as ‘Dameda’ in those inscriptions. That is how the term ‘Dravida’ was written in Sinhala Prakrit language. By the 7th century A.D.

This is an inscription, which belonged to the Arabs, inscribed on a tombstone. This is a letter inscribed in Cufic scripts. 

An ancient Shiva Devala in Polonnaruwa.

There lived a considerable number of Tamil people close to the main harbours of this country. Thirukethishwaram Hindu temple built close to the harbour of Mathota and Koneshvaram temple built nearby the old harbour Gokannatitta, which was in Trincomalee were places worshipped by the Tamil people who lived there during that time.

An old stone plate, with a cross engraved on it, has been discovered in Anuradhapura. That cross belongs to a catholic sect named Nestorians. Later the traders who held the ideas of the Nestorian sect, which developed centred on Persia, migrated to Sri Lanka through the trade routes. The traveller Cosmos Indicopletus, who belonged to the 5th century A.D. has mentioned about a group of Persian traders who lived in Anuradhapura.

The scholars are of the view that the stone post with the Nestorian cross found in Anuradhapura was made after the arrival of the Portuguese to this country.

 There are evidences that the ideas belonging to Islam religion prevailed in Sri Lanka in the period after the 9th century A.D. In the ‘Quitab –Al- Musliqval – Mamalik, the oldest Arabic geographical book discovered so far, has mentioned Sri Lanka as ‘Sarandib’. ‘Sarandib’ was the way that the Arabs pronounced the term ‘Sinhaladweepa’.

graffiti written on the mirror wall in Sigiriya. The scripts in this belong to the 8th or 9th century A.D. It begins with two words ‘Konanathalmi Leemi’. Its meaning is 'I am Konanathal. I wrote this.'

Sigiri nymphs painted on the walls of Sigiriya Rock: These paintings depict the nature of art prevailed in the royal palace in the 5 th century. Scholars say that these paintings represent Meghalatha, thunder clouds and Vijjulatha, lightning.

 This book was written in or around 845 A.D. There was a mutual relation between Sri Lanka and Arab from ancient time. It was a relation which went beyond mere trade relations. The book ‘Ajayib Al- Hind, written by a person called Iban Shahriar in 953 A.D. mentions that when Prophet Mohammed, the leader of Islamic religion, was alive, a group of people from Sarandib had arrived in Arab to get a clear idea of his doctrine. The Muslim commercial domination, started by the Abbaseede centred on Bhagdad, spread in Asia between 751 – 1258 A.D. The Arabic historian Al – Bhalasuri who lived in the 9th century A.D., has mentioned that the Sri Lankan rulers had taken proper measures to manage the international trade affairs well.

Education

There was an organized method to acquire knowledge and publicize it in this country from ancient time. At the early stages knowledge was passed from generation to generation through exercise and listening to someone. When we study the similarities of the styles and finishing of the clay pots containing burnt human remains and the clay tub burials built in several places since 4400 year ago, it is very obvious that the knowledge on the technology that was needed to make those things had been gathered in an organized manner.

As it was mentioned early in this lesson, the group which is named as ‘Achariya’ in the oldest inscriptions in our country is teachers. The things taught by those teachers were mentioned in the places where they had been introduced. They have been introduced as “Dhanu Achariya”, “Hathi Achariya”, and “Asa Achariya”. They were the teachers who taught archery, the art of controlling tuskers, and the art of controlling horses respectively.

After Buddhism was rooted in this country, Buddhist temples and monasteries became the  main educational centres. The scholarly monks who stayed in them were fully conversant not only with the languages such as Sinhala, Pali, Sanskrit, and Prakrit, but also with the Buddhist doctrine. From ancient time they were the teachers in this country.

 There was a sense of respect regarding giving education and receiving education in our ancient society. The poem mentioned in the Lokopakaraya is a fine example for that. It is given below.

Ru Siri Yowun Guna – Nena Siyallen Noadu Vee muth

Nodathoth Silpa Satha – Suvanda Nethi Kele Mala Sama We

The poem says that though someone is young, wise and pleasant in appearance, he or she is similar to a wild flower without fragrance if he or she has no proper education.

Literature and Appreciation

Works of literature belonging to the era of Rajarata Civilization are written in either one of the three languages, Pali, Sanskrit and Sinhala. Dipawamsa, Abhidhammappadeepika and Sarattha deepani are examples for the books written in Pali. Books such as Janakiharanaya, Balawabodhaya and Anuruddhasathakaya are written in Sanskrit. Siyabaslakara, Sasadawatha and Muwadewdawatha are examples for the books written in Sinhala.

A poem written by such a poet 2000 years ago could be seen inscribed in a rock in Kirinda temple. It’s a free verse which could be read to a rhythm. Both the poem and its translation are given below.

The poem inscribed in the stone.

Apirimithe Lokahi – Budha same nathi 

 Athana parama dulabe – savanuthe pathe 

Anuthare sathe – Maha sarane 

Lokachaka Budha nama sayabu – Megalahi Vihare 

Naka Uvaraja nama – Budha sarana gathe 

Michaditika Bidiya – yahamaga parayana Bhuthe

Its translation: 

This world is unlimited – no blessing equal to the Buddha 

He is everywhere – being equal to him is rare 

It’s a great blessing – not second to anyone 

He is omniscient – is an eye to the globe 

Give up being a heathen – select the best path 

In this temple – vice king Naga entered the Buddhist order. 

Nearly 600 poems composed during the Anuradhapura period could be seen even today on the mirror wall in Sigiriya. The sense of inspiration of those poems is very high. 

The poets of our country in the ancient time, who were disciplined with Buddhist teachings, composed poems based on the experience gained from working with the nature constantly. Hence, the theme of most of the poems was impermanence. Such an attractive poem has been written in an inscription, which belonged to the 9th century A.D, found in the premises of Abhayagiri temple. The techniques such as similes used in that poem create a very sensitive and subtle aesthetic sense in the reader. The poem says that life is like a ‘Vara’ flower caught in a wildfire. 

You will be able to understand easily the nature of aesthetic thoughts of the ancient Sri Lankans by reading, understanding and appreciating the Sigiri graffiti given below.

Viju Rakbo Pavijjan Lee Me gee 

Nelen Vee Piripatha 

Nalala Kehe Pitihi Huna 

Maladama Gene Visira 

Biyapath Ve Apa Beyanda Negiye 

Translation:

The song is written 

By Vajra Aggabodhi monk 

When climbing this rock 

We were disturbed by the wind 

The tuff of hair on the forehead 

Fell on the nape due to the wind 

Flower garland worn on the neck was scattered 

It made us frightened.

As our ancestors were engaged in farming and animal husbandry from a long period of time they were able to live closely with the nature. Therefore, they had a simple but deep understanding about the beauty and the uncertainity of the nature. As those ideas were further developed by the teachings of Buddhism, a dispassionate taste was developed in the ancient society.

Ethnic Co-existence

There are evidences to prove that there lived people, who belonged to different cultures in the cities of our country from the ancient time. The inscriptions point out that apart from the native Sinhala people, there were groups of people, belonging to other cultures and beliefs in other religions, who came here for trading , among the urban community. Among them there were traders who came from South India, the Ionians who came from the Greek and Macedonian regions, the Cambodians who came from the Afganistan region, and the Jawakans who came from the Malayan peninsula. 

Though there was much diversity among the aforementioned nationals, they had never tried to fight with each other. An inscription found in Abhayagiri Vihara in Anuradhapura mentions about a Tamil monk. It was written around 1st century A.D. The ancient people of this country did not use to look at other nationals with suspicion. Instead, they worked and lived with them amicably. An ancient inscription found in Ampara mentions about a Tamil man who was married to a Sinhalese woman. The archaeologists were able to discover a street in Anuradhapura where several Tamil families had lived. 

The merchants, who migrated from various countries in the region around the Indian Ocean, lived in ancient cities in Sri Lanka. However, it seems that most of them had come from South India. There was a special post in the king’s court named as ‘Demala Adhikari’ by the 9th century A.D. His task must have been to look into the matters regarding the welfare of the Tamil people who lived in and around Anuradhapura. A person named ''Demel Adhikari Pandiradh'' has been mentioned in an inscription of king Kashyapa IV which is in the National Museum of Colombo. Among this Tamil community, most of them were soldiers who served as the mercenary soldiers in the army in our country. The oldest kings who sought the assistance of the South Indian mercenary soldiers were king Ilanaga (33 -43 A.D) and King Abhayanaga (231 – 240 A.D.) They, who came from Kerala, were called ‘Agampadi Senawa’. The Wamsakatha say that King Vijayabahu I had assigned the duty of providing defence to the Dalada Maligawa (Temple of Tooth) to Welayikkar force. The Welayikkaras were the group of Agampadi who came here from Kerala. 

In the 11th and 12th centuries A.D. a group of merchants named ‘Nanadesin’ who were engaged in trade affairs in this country were a company who had a South Indian origin. A bronze cachet which belonged to them has been discovered in Hambanthota. An inscription, written during the reign of queen Lilawathi, found in Anuradhapura, mentions about a customs barrier which had belonged to the group of merchants called ‘Nanadesin’. According to the historical records, these merchants had been engaged in their activities peacefully and the rulers too had provided much assistance for their welfare and protection. Our citizens used to work amicably not only with the Tamils, but also with the Arabs who were Muslims. The Sri Pada (Adam’s Peak) mountain, which was consecrated with the touch of the foot of the Lord Buddha, is a sacred epitome of the Buddhists of this country. From the 9th century it was worshipped by the Muslims based on the belief that it is the Adam’s Peak. It has been recorded that in 850 A.D. a merchant and a traveller called ‘Sulaiman’ had arrived to worship Sri Pada. None of them were disturbed by the government or the citizens. Therefore, Sri Pada is venerated by all four religions.

In the ancient time, the rulers and the citizens of this country often thought how they could work with all with co-existence for the betterment of the country. Every occasion when the protection of the stability of Buddhism and the unity of the country were not threatened, that co-existence was well preserved. We should always remember that the way the Sinhala Buddhist people, who lived in this country, acted to tolerate other nationals and religions is exemplary.

Important Facts 

The ruling affairs in ancient Sri Lanka were done by three institutions namely executive, legislature, and judiciary. The king and the public officers acted on behalf of the king belonged to the executive. The king’s court made decisions through discussions. 

 Our ancient rulers always followed a flexible foreign policy. 

 There lived people who were engaged in different professions in our ancient society. All of them made a great contribution to the society to make it more efficient and make the people’s lives easier through that. 

 From ancient time agriculture and animal husbandry was the main livelihood of the majority of people in this country. 

 Ancient Sri Lankans had a high level of aesthetic and literary appreciation. There are evidences to prove that their creative ability and talents were at a high level. 

 Buddhism in this country in ancient time was a profound philosophy and also it included various activities which reflected people’s faith and piety. There was a mutual, intimate and respectable relationship with the Buddhist monks and people. 

 Apart from Buddhism, other religious thoughts too spread in the society in this country from time to time. Based on the facts such as Sri Lanka was an island and participated actively in the trade affairs in the Indian Ocean, other religious thoughts spread in this country. 

 Living mutually with other ethnic groups belonging to other cultures was a special characteristic in the history of our country. 

Padhanaghara – These were ancient buildings used by the Buddhist monks to be engaged in deep meditations. The Padhanagharas were built by connecting two buildings, with a moat around it, with a small bridge. The Perimiyamkulam inscription, made by king Vasabha, mentions a Padhanaghara named Sudassana. Such Padhanagharas can be seen in places like Ritigala, Manakanda, and Anuradhapura. The word “Dvithwa Vedika Godanegily (Bi-platform buildings)” is also used to name ‘Padhanaghara’. 

Poogaya – The meaning of the Sanskrit word ‘Pooga’ is a council or a panel consisting of some people. The word ‘Pooga’ has been written in ancient inscriptions to introduce ‘the council of the merchants’. The word ‘Niyamasthana (Niyamathana)’ too has been used in the inscriptions with the same meaning. 

Cufic Arab Letters – The word ‘Cufic’ means the original form of various Arab scripts. That script style got developed centering the Kuffa city in Iraq in the seventh century A.D. Cufic letters were used to copy the sacred Quran which is the religious text of the Muslim devotees. Several tombstones written with these scripts have been discovered in Sri Lanka too.